LEARNERS AND LEARNING ASSIGNMENT 4 Essay

INTRODUCTION Students learning English as a foreign language are often confronted with the challenge of learning and using English effectively. Some students seem to cope with the difficulties of language learning with great success and neither little effort, while for others the task is neither an enjoyable nor a successful one. What is it that makes learning a new language so easy for some and so difficult for others? One reason is that â€Å"each student has his/her own preferred way of learning that is determined by his/her cultural and educational background and personality† (Shoebottom, 2007). BRIEF LESSON OUTLINE In this assignment I evaluated differences in learners’ responses and considered ways in which the quality of their learning could be improved. The lesson was aimed to help the students understand and use the 2nd Conditional in the context of life survival. I designed a lesson of an escape survival plan at school which consisted in following rules of a fire exit plan in every room. It’s the kind of thing you always see on your hotel door, with a plan of all the exits, staircases, elevators and rooms. I gave them a fun and language rich way to use these plans in a zombie-infested building right here at school, of course, containing plenty of grammar-juice in it. STUDENT’S PROFILE There are 20 students in my class. The learners described are intermediate students whose ages varied from 16’s to 17’s.I have been teaching them for about 9 months. They show great interest in language learning and most of them like my teaching approaches and interact with me well in class. 2/3 of the students are of average level of the class. They like to communicate in class but are weak at the accuracy of language. DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS’ RESPONSES AND ACHIEVEMENTS Having observed and taught the class, I can figure out that each student has his/her own way of following my teaching stages and activities during the lesson. These different ways seemed to influence how they responded to different teaching methods I applied in each activity and how successful they were in understanding and using the language focus. The differences discussed later include the learners’ age, motivation, personality, and social and cultural background. AGE Compared to motivation, personality, and social and cultural background, age seems to be easier to define and measure. Nevertheless, the relationship between learners’ age and their potential success in foreign or second language acquisition is still a subject of debate. â€Å"Linguists argue that many young learners are capable of communicating successfully in a foreign language, in terms of accent, word choice, or grammatical features because they begin learning a language when they are young† (Lightbown & Spada, 2003). I, therefore, planned and set up activities that helped them understand, practice, and produce the language form gradually in a relaxed atmosphere and a non-threatening way. My group stated that they preferred working in pairs to other options. They were shown to be well balanced in the primary senses; Visual, Auditory or Kinesthetic which people use principally in learning.  This information is in line with my observations of this group in class and I believe is also somewhat representative of their age. Being teenagers, they have still to fully develop their preferred learning styles and learners of this age group often feel self-conscious about being ‘criticized’ or corrected in front of others. Having said this, I found my group to be attentive and well-balanced learners. MOTIVATION My students were very motivated and excited planning their way out of a zombie-infested building. They started acting a little, and they could not wait to start the lesson. They did not mind following my instructions and were willing to do any activities set up in each teaching practice. In order to sustain the pupils’ motivation, I set up a variety of activities, i.e., guessing pictures, role play, listening tasks, team work, highlighting form and pronunciation, mingling speaking activity. By doing these various  activities, I could avoid boredom and increase their interest levels during the one hour lesson. Williams (1999) cites the work of Gardner (1985) and defines motivation as consisting of effort, plus desire to achieve the goal of learning, plus favorable attitudes towards learning the language. A distinction is made between integrative (or intrinsic) orientation, which occurs when the learner wishes to identify with the culture of the target language, and instrument al (extrinsic) orientation, which occurs when motivation arises from external goals, such as passing exams, financial rewards, or furthering a career. Lamb, M. (2012) adds a third category: success in the task, which is a combination of satisfaction and reward.  PERSONALITY One of the challenges I faced teaching this lesson (in the beginning) was the discipline. I made clear right from the start of the lesson what the rules of the classroom were and the consequences of not behaving well, this made the students’ behavior in my classroom much better The personality of the group as a whole was of outgoing teenagers. They were eager to participate and even the shy ones contributed willingly in this lesson. A few of them, the extroverts, were the ones who volunteered more. Usually, these are the most prominent students, and this helped in modeling correctly for their peers. They had no problem in following instructions and started work immediately. I was pleased to see they agreed to work without hesitation. They did prefer to work with a friend, as it often happens when they have been together for at least three years, but still they worked collaboratively. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND The social background of the students in this Institution is of a well-off family with moral values. The majority of them go abroad for their holidays and own a house and one or two cars. Their parents either own a business or have an executive position in a company. They belong to a club and have lessons in the afternoon of martial arts or practice a sport. During this lesson I noticed an active participation, students also play active roles in developing the knowledge that was to be learned, this in my own way of seeing things is that a student that has a better social status tends to be more organized and more structured this also involves some shifting of roles and responsibilities; teachers become less directive and more facilitative, while students assume increasing responsibility. During this class my students took risks with the language in communicative tasks. They expressed their ideas orally without being afraid of making mistakes. They were more concerned with speaking fluently than speaking accurately. Altogether, I believe a good social and cultural background contributes for a better learning environment. (Shoebotton, 2007) âÅ"” IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LEARNING FOR THE LEARNERS Having described my students above, I am determined to improve their learning quality through some teaching strategies I elaborate in the following paragraphs. The strategies will be in accordance with their age, motivation, personality, and social and cultural background. During the class I noticed that some students did their best to maintain communication with their peers, but their pronunciation and their structure was not very successful. I was very happy to see that the language was produced but I think it was not good enough for an activity of this magnitude. In the future I will conduct oral productive stages to cater the weak learners. Later, I will also monitor them and give feedback on their erroneous expressions so they will find the communicative activity more meaningful and almost at the same time they will pay more attention to form in a more interesting way. I will maintain highlighting form and pronunciation since they like to pay attention to details of language, es pecially grammar rules. I will set up activities related to language form so that they can be more motivated to show their grammar competence. Afterwards, I will ask them to practice the form in a guided speaking activity so that they will be more ready to enter a freer speaking activity. In relation to the students’ motivation, besides setting up activities that suit their learning characteristics, I will also keep setting up various activities ranging from initial to main activities and from receptive skill to productive skill stages. By doing so, I can avoid teaching patterns that potentially create boredom and gradually demotivate their learning spirit. Instead, I will conduct different activities in each stage that can optimally increase their motivation. CONCLUSION Having stated the learners and learning issues above, I believe that varying classroom activities, teachers will make sure to cater learners with different learning styles at least some of the time. If we balance the activities to suit the learning styles, it is quite probable that the outcome will be the result of a well-planned lesson. Timing also plays an important role in planning lessons. While some activities like completing a task in a limited time proves to set pressure upon the learners. This assignment makes me really reflect on my teaching experiences. I believe this assignment contributes a great deal towards my teaching skills and in turn potentially develop my understanding towards my students’ learning styles, responses, and achievements. References: Shoebottom, P. 2007. Language learning styles. Retrieved on November 23, 2007 from http://esl.fis.edu/parents/advice/styles.htm Lightbown, P.M. & Spada, N. 2003. How Languages Are Learned. UK: Oxford University Press Williams, M., & Burden, L. R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gardner, R. C. (2006). The socio-educational model of second language acquisition: A research paradigm. EUROSLA Yearbook, 6, 237-260. Lamb, M. (2012). A self-system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to learn English in rural and urban settings. Language Learning, 62, 997-1023.

A Review of A View From The Bridge Essay

A View From The Bridge, a powerful play by Arthur Miller, was staged in the round at the Manchester Royal Exchange. By producing the play in the round, the action could be viewed from all angles which was a more effective way of portraying the story. It also allowed the entire stage to be used without loss of action which allowed the stage to be split into two sections – the street and inside the house. These two portions of the stage were quite obvious, being symbolised by the telephone booth (a key prop later in the play) and the dining room table. That said, other furniture such as Alfieri’s desk, seemed a little unnecessary, especially since it had to be brought in from off stage for each of Alfieri’s scenes. This wasn’t helped by the general lighting in the theatre which could never provide a complete blackout on stage due to the large amounts of windows in the upper seating areas. The stage lighting was fairly simple with neutral ‘general’ lights used for most scenes. This was developed somewhat in important scenes such as Eddie’s death and the lighting was altered (although not significantly) when Alfieri recited his monologues. However sound was used quite effectively in these scenes with the same effect being used to symbolise a change in the setting. Although the play featured very little props, when they were used, they were used to great effect such as the crates being lowered at the beginning or the characters using real food in the dinner scene and then eating it. This also helps instil a sense of realism into the play and helps the audience to relate to the storyline. Throughout the play, tension was slowly but cleverly built up to the final climax. The main character doing this was Eddie whose ever increasing hatred of Rodolpho built up the tension until the all important telephone booth came into play. From there Eddie’s desperation turned to madness and Con O’Neill’s portrayal of Eddie made him seem like something out of a horror film, which only helped to add to the tension. The lighting in the play also helped add to the tension with more menacing and ominous lights used as the play progressed through the second act. All of the characters where depicted beautifully in the play thanks to wonderful acting paired with realistic costumes, which made this play a real delight to watch. The costumes worn by the characters were simple but effective, accurately representing the style of 1940s New York. The costumes also helped contrast the personalities between Eddie and Rodolpho with Eddie’s typical ‘working man’ clothes and Rodolpho in his smart shirts and stylish shoes. The acting was let down somewhat by the voice acting of Catherine (Leila Mimmack) whose accent seem to be very variable, ranging from broad New York to almost full-on Italian. The voices of everyone in else in the play however were superb and really helped to make the play more realistic and believable. In particular Ian Redford did a sterling job, brilliantly portraying Alfieri’s helplessness and narrating the story with exactly the right tone. A moment that really stood out for me was the very last scene in which Eddie is trying to get Marco to give him back his respect. Con O’Neill portrays Eddie’s desperation magnificently and uses every part of his body to make him seem crazy, especially his facial features. The same could also be said about Nitzan Sharron’s character Marco who is so furious with Eddies, he is practically on fire. This scene is a really shocking point in the storyline which was wonderfully acted by all since the scene featured nearly all the cast. The scene was let down somewhat by the over exaggerated and unrealistic death of Eddie Carbone. Even though producing a realistic death scene is hard to do in any play, the way Eddie was stabbed and O’Neill’s acting on his death was a bit disappointing. However this may be due to the fact that the play was performed in the round and so not everyone can experience the death as it was intended. The scene was well rounded off by Alfieri who delivered his consistently good speech which helped end the scene, and the play, extremely well.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN THE CHURCH Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN THE CHURCH - Essay Example nt and as such cannot cause conflict, in most cases, disregarding these sources creates bigger conflicts that could even contribute to bother breakup of the church. Although the church embraces morals in its operations, understanding the differences in the backgrounds of the members and leaders is important in dealing with conflict whenever they arise. Church attendance is one of the most important sources of conflict in the church. An increase and a decrease in people’s attendance in the church both have similar effects. They have a high likelihood of creating conflicts. While an increase in the number of people in the church raises an alarm to individuals holding leadership positions in the church, as they risk competition, a decrease in the attendance levels is an indication of poor leadership skills among the leaders (Turner 1991, p. 6). This could thus lead to a conflict between the members of the church and their leaders. Annual budget is yet another source of conflict in a church. Some of the people could have diverse views especially in the allocation of the total income of the church. Money, now more than ever, is a highly sensitive issue in the church. Budgeting should receive the approval of most of the members of the church, if not all (Spann & Wheeler 2010,  p. 241). Time changes for the leaders especially in addressing the members of the church is an important consideration too. Some of the leaders feel superior to others and thus regard them as coming later in the protocol. Time allocated to the leaders of the church to address the members of the church could also be a good breeding ground for church conflicts. When new influential people join the church, conflict is bound to arise. In most cases, these new people appear to receive more attention than the leaders of the church, something that would not go well with the leaders. Finally, the fear of the organization being out of control could be a source of conflict as the members deliberate on the

Current U.S and Indonesian Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Current U.S and Indonesian Economics - Essay Example which lowered their money reserves making it more expensive to gain access to capital because the rating agencies downgrade bonds issued by countries in the Indonesians region. Dependency theory is the economic explanation of a nation in terms of cultural, economic, and political factors. These affect the economic polities the government implements. Cultures respect historical results and in economic unstable countries that the phenomenon last for a long time the people rebel against the state. Civil war is not accepted in the United Nations and they must intervene to end these types of conflicts immediately. Participatory development produces more quality food at a lower price than in the past due to developments in research and developments and genetic engineering agricultural. A difference between these two philosophies is control. Conditionality is associated with the economic policies established by the International Monetary Fund also often referred too as the World Bank. Some emerging economies believe that the economic policies of the World Bank are unfair and that they give preferential treatment to developed countries. The loans are given out, but conditionality is included so that the loans are used for a specific purpose. Community development often fails due to conflict and discrepancies in expectations. Sometimes the demands of certain interest groups are not unreasonable and the government cannot accommodate their demands due to economic constraints. Other reasons why community development programs fail is due to a lack of money. It takes money to pay for rent of community centers and to provide other types of services. 6) Some people are saying that recent and on-going demonstration called "occupy Wall Street" has become a "social movement" similar to some in the "Arab Spring" social movements of this past year. What do you think of this claim? Occupy Wall Street is a movement that supports of the country with New York and All Street being the

Evaluating Eligibility Rules of A Social Program Essay

Evaluating Eligibility Rules of A Social Program - Essay Example t, let it be clear, first of all, that the specific social program â€Å"combines private sector management consulting strategies with the Foundation’s system reform expertise to help improve outcomes for children and families by transforming the management and accountability structure, operations, and front-line practice of public agencies.† (The Annie E. Casey foundation, 2007). There are various eligibility rules available to undertake an evaluation of the program. It is of paramount significance to assess which one or ones of these rules go into the making of the program and an assessment of the appropriateness of the rule/rules adopted and make some suggestions for the improvement of the strategy and the rules if necessary etc. First of all, it may be noted that the eligibility rules governing the program have a wider scope and they cover such varied norms such as professional discretion, prior contribution, private contracts, administrative discretion, and judicial decisions. The purpose or the mission of the program, i.e. â€Å"to  provide intensive strategic consulting that facilitates significant, measurable, and enduring human service system transformations† proves the aptness of the eligibility rules selected to augment the efforts of the foundation in the concerned areas. (The Annie E. Casey foundation, 2007). However, it does not mean that the types of eligibility rules are without their limitations to cover the necessities of such a vast and highly reputed program. It is a reputed social program which is aimed at assisting the foundation in its efforts to provide services to the betterment of the vulnerable children and their families and, therefore, the strategies adopted need to focus the wider spectrum of related areas. The effectiveness of the program cannot be implemented just by the abstract programs and efforts. Rather, the concretization of the eligibility rules occupies greater significance, for which an exact and clear-cut framework of the

Personal and profesional development Assignment

Personal and profesional development - Assignment Example The management decisions of the learning process need to balance between the teacher and the student. Some decisions keep revolving in the whole process. Some of the decisions will come from the teacher who guides the student while some will originate from the student since they involve the personal values and what the student will feel needs inculcating in them. Although these decisions balance between the teacher and the student, some will entirely lie in the teacher’s hands. These may involve decisions with the study curriculum, low structure tasks lie in the student’s decision line and they may have the student rely the decisions basing on the teachers guidance. Three essential dimensions need involvement in all the aspects of training and self-management. These are planning, implementation, and the evaluation processes (David, 1996, p.3). Lifelong learning process stems from a system that develops in the student from the learning stage. Evidence to this determined by how the student handles and controls his activities and decisions during the learning process. The planning process runs and develops as the student grows and the time this person takes to depends on the level of experience and personal controls of life. Life continues in the series of learning processes that only end when one decreases from the world. The learning process continues and so the need to develop a person in life features and the needs that they may have on their life and planning. Self-managed learning is about the individuals managing their own learning. This involves dealing with taking responsibility for decisions in their learning processes. This involves the decisions of what they learn, when they do the learning, how they do learn and where they learn. The most fundamental of them being why they learn that leads to the answers that give the student their quest. This involves the students deciding the learning goals and objectives that help the

A meeting with the security auditor of your firm Essay

A meeting with the security auditor of your firm - Essay Example It is every customers concern to visit and work with an e commerce website that guarantees privacy and confidentiality of the data they feed to the websites (Ghosh 2001). Several site security aspects are of great importance in the safeguarding of customers confidential information. Notably, privacy or confidentiality is the most major concern of every online business transaction. In consideration of the emerging limitations, flaws and risks being posed by current state of internet technologies, a great mistrust and confusion is ranging from the customers engaging in e-commerce. This e-commerce website values this key concern to foster the trust of our customers to our business platform. In view of this the website is designed to safeguard the information given by the consumers of our services and goods away from unauthorized parties. Several measures have been taken to ensure the above endeavor is met. A minimum of six character password has provided with an encryption mode to protect against hacking. Though the transactions are carried out in a public key infrastructure, only the authorized recipient has a private key to access the encrypted data. More over high secrecy will be exercised to secure the private keys from being manipulated by unauthorized persons (Ghosh 2001). Authentication of a customer’s data is another significant aspect which has been considered to secure our online customers. We note the extensive threats being posed to e-commerce through SQL Injection and the Cross-site scripting. These are the major applications being used by cyber crime enthusiasts to enhance vulnerability of e-commerce sites. Objectively, Secure Socket Layer certificate has been installed in the website to ensure the security of all financial information entered by the clients. It is a common issue that the clients will need to use their debit cards, credit cards, pay pal and other payments methods which leaves traces of their vital and personal

Definition Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Definition Argument - Essay Example It must also have its particular genres, its set of specialized terminology and vocabulary, and a high level of expertise in its particular area. Fans of popular celebrities such as musicians, movie stars, and politicians are examples of discourse communities. Angelina Jolie has many fans that form a discourse community. As such, the fans exhibit the aforementioned features, and hence they qualify to be categorized as a discourse community. Jolie is an American actress, filmmaker, and humanitarian. She has starred in movies that include Looking’ to Get Out, Cyborg 2, Hackers, George Wallace, Maleficent, Unbroken, Mr. & Mrs. Smith, Wanted, and Salt. She has directed and produced dramas that include In the Land and Honey and Unbroken. She is also a humanitarian and promotes causes that include conservation, education, women’s right, and is a special envoy for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). A discourse community has a common goal. Swales states that a discourse community â€Å"an agreed upon set of common objectives† (471). The Jolie fan community meets Swales’ characteristic of a common goal in a discourse community. Personal motivations among the members may differ, but they acknowledge a common, well-known goal. They may have different interests in the same community, but they must align their interests with the common goal of the discourse community to feel part of the group (Garzone & Sarangi 312). The goals of fans of Angelina Jolie are to see her succeed in her acting career. It is also to stay updated on what Angelina Jolie does. For members to remain up-to-date with the activities carried out by Jolie, they participate and remain in touch with each other to obtain first-hand information. Jolie fan community looks up to Jolie for influence in body image, beauty, and fashion. A video uploaded in YouTube, â€Å"Angelina Jolie Makeup Tutorial† , shows how to put a Jolie style of makeup. The video shows that members

Being educated is not about certificates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Being educated is not about certificates - Essay Example He is against the traditional way of imparting education because it falls miserably short of what the "actual" aim of education should be. Kohn is of the firm view that being educated has no co-relation with having and/or acquiring certificates/degrees. He contends that the present cirriculum and the standardized system of testing in vogue today in the United States, should be abolished and a "progressive" system be put in its place. This is so because he wants the students to be no only well trained and literate in their chosen fields but also be well rounded personalities who on the one hand are intellectually sound and on the other hand are loving, caring and lovable individuals. The author has experience of people who have many certificates, but according to him they can in no way be considered educated because they lack the essential hands on experience to deal with many expected and unexpected situations/experiences that the real world affords them. They lack the qualities to face such situations because they (the students) have been brought up in a cloistered environment of the class room/school. To give an example, consider what would happen to a plant that has been grown in a controlled environment inside a laboratory, once the said plant/sapling, is exposed to the natural (uncontrolled) environment, it will wilt and die. 3. Both Kohn and the writer are in agreement that a great barrier in improving the standard of education in the United States is the out dated stance of the conservative politicians, the policy makers/ bureaucrats and the heads of big corporations who are in league that favors the traditional system because it serves their purposes. This traditional system provides an inexhaustible line of clone like individuals to the big corporations, who act according to their commands/orders without question and help run their mills and factories smoothly without

Management Style essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Management Style - Essay Example In order to succeed in management, managers should possess some qualities. One of the qualities of a good manager is creativity. Creative managers have the ability to carry out projects within the organization effectively and efficiently. Moreover, creativity enables managers to combine all the organization’s resources and use them to enhance growth within the organization. The other quality that makes managers successful is through being team players. Good managers always ensure that they work with teams of employees and supervise the activities of each team to ensure that all team members are participating. Commitment is another good quality that a manager ought to possess; a manager should be committed to the success of the projects that the organization undertakes. With a committed manager, other employees in the organization can succeed even during trying times (Buchbinder, 2012). Buchbinder (2012) asserts that good managers should also be flexible and versatile. This implies that they can change their behavior based on the prevailing situation within the organization. In addition, flexibility enables managers to be open and accommodative to the views, opinions, and ideas of junior employees. Another good quality of manager is knowledge; managers should be well-equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge about management. Managers who are knowledgeable help employees learn about crucial aspects that enhance success and career growth. According to Buchbinder (2012), some managers possess poor qualities that can contribute to strained relationships with employees. One of the poor qualities that managers may have is being bullies. Some managers bully junior employees; this can be in the form of belittling and intimidating employees. This negatively affects the morale of employees and, in the long run, it can contribute to poor performance of the

Corn Essay Example for Free

Corn Essay Demand for Corn If the demand for corn increases due to its use as an alternative energy source, the supply of corn substitute like soybean would decrease. This would happen because as the demand of corn rises, the price of corn would rise. Therefore the producers of a substitute like soybean would start producing corn instead of the soybean considering that they both have the same farmland. The producers of soybean will expect to make more profit by selling corn at a higher price assuming the cost of production remains the same. Therefore the quantity supplied of substitute such as soybean would reduce. Price of Corn The price increase of corn would lead to an increase in the price of corn oil. Corn will act as a high raw material cost in producing corn oil. Moreover as the demand for corn is to be used in the production of alternate energy rises, the total quantity supplied for production of corn oil would decrease initially whereas the quantity demanded for corn will remain the same and hence the price of corn will rise which ultimately cause the price of corn oil to rise. Price of Elasticity The price elasticity of demand for corn oil will eventually lead to a decrease in demand for corn oil and hence as the demand decreases, sales will drop and total revenue earned by sellers of corn will decline. In the market there are many available substitutes for a product like Corn oil. Corn oil is not a necessity for life and can be substituted with other related products. In this case soybean oil would be a close substitute for corn oil. Hence as with the price elasticity of demand, increase in price of the corn oil would lead to decrease in demand of the corn oil as the consumers will switch from high priced corn oil to the cheaper substitute soybean oil. In effect with the decrease in demand of corn oil the sales would fall leading to a decrease in the Total revenue earned by the sellers of corn oil.

Exchange Rate Systems and Currency Crisis

Exchange Rate Systems and Currency Crisis Introduction Financial crisis occurs when the foreign value of a domestic currency unit falls. This thus results to the rise of the liabilities in the balance sheets of exposed economic units. It also afflicts the balance sheet of exposed economic units (Shiller, 2008). Banks get affected either directly or indirectly through their clients exposure. Currency crisis may indicate a dramatic drop in the exchange rate and it usually comes in the form of a breakdown of a unilaterally pegged exchange rate arrangement and also as an outcome of the balance of payment. 1. Under a fixed exchange-rate system, what automatic adjustments promote payments equilibrium? In a fixed exchange rate system, the exchange is not supposed to vary. Therefore, surplus and deficit elimination can be eliminated through government controls on payments and trades, and also by price change. In order to achieve this, the deficit nation is supposed to deflate the economy in order to encourage exports ( Mankiw, 2003). On the other hand a country experiencing surplus is supposed to stimulate its economy in order to discourage exports and at the same time encourage imports. Payment equilibrium can also be achieved through direct government restrictions on the importation of services and goods and loans and investments from foreign countries. 2. What is meant by the quantity theory of money? Quantity theory of money implies that value is determined by the relationship between supply and demand. This theory states that there is an association between the products sold and the money in the economy (Barro, 2008). Therefore, if the quantity of the money in the economy rises, the prices of products also rise thus resulting to inflation. This results to the buyers paying very high prices for the good and services they buy. Money is just like any other commodity and thus if its supply increase its value decreases. Therefore high supply of money in the economy results to price increase or inflation in order to cover up for the decreased value of the money. 3. When analyzing the income-adjustment mechanism, one must account for the foreign repercussion effect. Explain. Income adjusted mechanism has a foreign effect. It results to increase income for the surplus nation and at the same time it results to decrease in income of a deficit country. This is because imports of the surplus nation will result to decrease in income because they will substitute the home produced goods. This finally will result to reduced imports. On the other hand the deflated nation will experience a rise in its exports thus resulting to increase in income. 4. How does the J-curve effect relate to the time path of currency depreciation? The J-curve effect explains the time lag with which a currency depreciation or devaluation results to an improvement in the trade balance. The theoretical basis of the j-curve effect is the elasticitys approach to the balance of payment. This theory states that a currency depreciation or devaluation is anticipated to improve the trade balance by changing the relative prices of foreign and domestic goods (Carbaugh, 2008). When foreign good are made expensive in the home country and the home country goods are made cheaper in foreign countries, demand for imports will reduce and foreigners will buy more of the home countrys export. 5. How can currency depreciation-induced changes in household money balances promote payments equilibrium? In most developing countries, currency depreciation is used to cure balance of payment equilibrium after some time. Currency depreciation is as a result of economic development. Therefore if no democratic means available to achieve economic development, inflation can help by permitting capital formation while depreciation can restore balance of payment equilibrium (Davies, 2010). 6. What factors underlie a nations decision to adopt floating exchange rates or fixed exchange rates? Both floating and fixed exchange rate systems have advantages and disadvantages, therefore, no country can permit continuous floating exchange rate because it is not health for the economy (Madura, 2008). On the other hand, no country can allow fixed exchange rate particularly in globalization era. Therefore, a country tries to adopt a system that combines the advantages of the two systems. The extent to which the exchange rate of a country should be floating or fixed cannot be generalized. Thus depending on the needs of a countries economy and other factors, a country can come up with its own exchange rate system. 7. What factors contribute to currency crises? One of the factors that result to currency crisis is inconsistent government policies which may result to speculative attack to on a fixed exchange rate. Excessive domestic credit creation causes residents to exchange unwanted domestic currency with foreign currency therefore reducing the government stock of international reserves (Haner, 2008). Erosion of the stock reserves causes problems because to maintain the fixed price of foreign exchange , the government must have enough reserves to sell every time the price of foreign exchange is about to rise. 8. Present the case for and the case against a system of floating exchange rates. Floating exchange rate system is advantageous because the value of a currency will adjust to show the changing market condition (Wright, 2000). For example if UK inflation increases more than for its trading partners this would result to its products becoming expensive abroad. This would result to fall in demand for UK goods and services and also the demand for the pound. This in turn reduces the value of the currency thus making the exports relatively cheaper. On the other hand, floating exchange rate is disadvantageous because the value of the currency change regularly therefore making it difficult for firms to make plans. For example, UK buyers may not know what they will have to pay to import foreign products. Conclusion With an eye to international payments, every country has to come up with a payment system. Various degrees of flexibility of the rate of exchange are possible and it depends on the objectives of a countrys economic policy and on its economic environment which system is preferred.

The Development Of A Barbershops Business Plan Commerce Essay

The Development Of A Barbershops Business Plan Commerce Essay A plan how to start a barbershop includes some things to be done prior to the start of the business. To start the business you need to know how it will be financed. The business needs a location that will help the customer access it with a lot of ease thus making it grow. The business needs to also to meet legal requirements. That is, it should be licensed and meet the standard required by relevant authority. The business plan should show how the business would expand. This is where the growth strategies are stipulated. The plan should also see to it that the competitors are well known to ensure that one gets the market share that the business will be operating. It is also analyzes the financial statement of a business helps to show at a glance the viability of the business. This may also be used to apply for a loan when need. All this is done by well understanding of the market by first doing market survey. This will help in setting up of the business at the right location. In addition, the business management will be able to put competitive prices for their products. Introduction A barbershop is a business unit that deals with glooming of hair. It is such a sustainable business as hair glooming is more of a basic need than a luxury. People will always need it. Styles may be short lived, but haircut is here to stay. This poses barbershop to be one of the most promising businesses that if well managed is liable of doing very well. Unlike in many businesses, customer retention in barbershop business is very high. Customers is should be well served to like the service of a barber. They will rarely go anywhere else once they are satisfied by the service. If good service is provided, ones customer will always come as far as the location of the barbershop I convenient to them. Barbershops are kind of businesses that acquire their customer through the word of mouth. One can start this business for fan but ends up being very rewarding in terms of cash (Moran Johnson 61). Ownership Once one gets an ideal of starting a business, the most important thing is to know how the business will operate in term of ownership. The business can be a sole proprietorship where one person operates it. This is where the owner of the business is an overall boss and enjoys all the profits and has no one to share with the business loss. He therefore manages the business with the help of people he/she has recruited who are all answerable to him. The owner makes sure that the business works in line with its goals that will help meet business objective. The business formation may take a partnership direction. This is where two or more people come together having the same motive and idea of starting of the business. The day-to-day running of the business is done consultatively among them. The profit is shared according to the level of share that one holds in the business. The loss is shared equally among them also. For all the decision that affects the business, there must be consultation among all stakeholders and no action is taken before they get to a consensus (Juuso, 66). The barbershop can also be in for of a company. The company may be private or public. In private company, the shareholders are defined and the company owners decide on whom to be shareholder while in the public company any bodies can a shareholder. The company requires seven people to fifty for a private company and limitless for a public company. To form an organization, due legal process is followed according to rules and regulation of federal government to meet international standards. The company is learnt by board of governors on behalf of the members. They improvise rules and regulations that are followed to meet the companyà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s objective (Ford, Et al 31). Once the business structure is decided, the next important issue is the business equity. One has to know where to get the fund. In a case of the sole proprietorship, the source of fund may be from personal saving, inheritance, donations from family or friends, grants or personal loans. Partnership gets their funds from their contributions or from loan. The company gets their fund from shares bought by the members. In our case, we will deal with the sole proprietorship. Market survey The most important part of the business is how well one knows how it operates. This well established by market survey. Before starting a sole proprietor barbershop, make sure that you get to the market and analyze every section of the business. From the location, customers, trends, market size, competitors and market sales. The survey should also include the service offered by the competitors. This will help in segmenting the market share. The price at which the customer pays for the service offered is also very important. This will help to establish a unique method of offering barbershop service that will be more satisfying to the customers without making loss. In the survey, one may include demographic factors such as sex, economic status of your potential customers and age before setting price of the service. Market size deals with the number of customers who on average buy or get the barbershop services. The trend of the market shows the customer variation in terms of how they get services. For example, more people may have hair cut during the summer seasons than they do during the winter seasons (Patsula, 112). The market sales show the data of the customer frequency to get the offered product and services. The market survey can be done by use of a questionnaire or by any other appropriate method. Business location The location of the business is very vital in its growth. Once the fund is integrated and the business formation is decided after a market survey, location is then the next issue. For barbershop, the business must be strategically placed. This is very important for customer to locate it easily. The best location is in a busy street where many people can be able to access it. This location will enable the business to compete successfully with others in terms of accessibility and getting reach to the customers. A good location of the business will ease the business lots of budgetary allocation of advertisement money. It also helps in the customer retention, as they do not go round in search of the premises. Marketing plan This is where the business owner strategies on how to enter the market. The price of each service is well put in place. The price should be well thought of not to deprive off the customerà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s money. This is because if they know that the service offered is not equivalent to the service offered they will quit. The next issue is the sale tactics. For a business to grow, one has to have different tactics that are unique from the others. This will help the business be identified from others helping it compete fully in the market. The survey will also help one come up with the best and cost effective method of advertisement (Moran Johnson 71) Good advertisement skills will help the business to sell its self-well among the very many competitors. The business should also consider the mode of advertisement to be used to ensure that the targeted customers have been accessed by the information. Business promotion is another issue to be but in consideration. The business should be in a position to work on promotion to ensure that the customers are conversant with their products. The promotion should be simple and cost effective. The barbershop business must put a strategy on how the advertisement and promotion will be conducted. It should stipulate how frequent this will be done. The amount of money that should be used also should be put in place. For the advertisement, it should be precise and easy to understand at a glance. It should also be economical and up to date. This will help the barbershop business to be more pronounced to dispense it services amidst intense competition. Operating plan The operating plan will show the business layout. This will show the building, size of the business, the facilities and the labor force employed in the business. It will also include the strategic plan of business improvement in terms of materials and facilities. The better the operating plan of the business, the better the positioning of the business in the competitive world. The labor force should be well organized and their duties well established to ensure that the business grows. Each person should have a distinct role in the barbershop. For the one who are offering the services, they should specialize on that line. For the management, they should specialize on that line to ensure that no conflict duties. Management plan For the business to succeed there must be people who are managing it. The management should be distinct from the lower management to the top management. The line of management should clearly elaborate the accountability of each personnel to each other. The management structure should be simple to understand to all personnel (Patsula, 42). . The structure should also show the compensation of the personnel in each level and the ownership of each personnel in the business. The compensation of the personnel in the barbershop should be according to the service they lender to the business and the level of competence. This is a very sensitive part especially when hiring the personnel. A business is liable to grow and achieve its objective according to the personnel employed. If they are not motivated, they tend to be reluctant to their work. This leads to the downfall of the business. Nevertheless, the salaries and wages given to them should not be too high to make the business work under p ressure to meet the cost of their remuneration. This might jeopardize the business and throw it in loss making enterprise. Thus, their compensation should reflect their output to the business, their competency and the profit the barbershop is making. Financial plan The business should have a financial plan on how it will use its available capital. This will include the projected cash flow for the year ended, profit and loss predicted and the balance sheet of the finance to be used. The projected cash flow will be able to show the amount of cash that gets in and out of the barbershop. It also shows the costs of operating the business and the anticipated profit to be made in the business in one year. The profit and loss account will show if the business will make loss or profit. Finally, the balance sheet is used to show the net worth of the business. It acts as an evidence of any sales or purchase made in the barbershop. The important things in the business are always recorded to ensure that references are gotten when required during the operation of the business. Thus, is done by recording, organizing and documenting such thing as profit margin, proposed capitalization, total remuneration, break-even point and so on. The record should be well reserved to ensure that they can be traced wherever they are required. They are also very important during loan application process and in the implementation of the plan to a running business (Moran Johnson 94). Conclusion A business is a very important document because it acts as a direction towards the accomplishment of once entrepreneurial dream. It is a road map towards achieving a business goal. It highlights and shows at a glance the steps that will be followed to operate a certain business idea to a practical skill. A well-researched business plan helps to solve unseen problems that would occur during the running of the business. This is less expensive because if any adjustment is required, it is only a matter of plucking the paper and changing the information to the required one. However, if the business is done in try and error method, any change to alter its operation means incurring a certain expense. In addition, the idea may not work at the end, so the only expense one will incur is paper work only (Juuso, 55). Prior planning is also very important as it saves time and energy. Every bit of work required to be done is there in the paper work. Thus, the only thing is to implement it. This eliminate the time that can be used to try issues in the business sector and the amount of money one can incur. Once the barbershop business is viable, well-gloomed personnel are employed to implement the business plan.

Ethical Tourism in the Postcolonial Era Essay example -- Traveler, Tou

Tourism has become a huge source of revenue and cultural exchange for many parts of the developing and developed world. Through tourism people are able to escape their normal routine and interact with exotic and different places, as well as people. This act of traveling for the sake of pleasure and "vacation" sometimes leads tourists astray in their ethical judgment of how to act as a visitor in a different land. This paper will dive deeper into this issue by comparing the "tourist" through the sexualized tourism market in Brazil and more ethical forms of alternative tourism, such as volunteer tourism. The act of touring has been done for hundreds of years but has morphed into a more lucrative, dangerous industry as travel has become more accessible to a wide spectrum of people. According to (New Keywords) there are generally two kinds of people participating in travel: the tourist and the traveler. The tourist is a superficial being, taking time "out from everyday routines to sample, but not necessarily engage with others† (356). The tourist may also be seen as vulgar and ignorant when presented with new cultures and ideologies. The traveler, on the other hand, is an "independent, genuine explorer on a quest of discovery" (356). The tourist participates in generic forms of tourism while the traveler seeks more personalized experiences that are more sensitive to their destination's environment and people. Through travel the "colonial and postcolonial character of modern tourism" is apparent as many people from the more privileged sectors of society visit the Third World and c ommodify their host's culture, bodies, and livelihood. Unfortunately, the bulk of the profit from these tourists goes to multinational companies instead of t... ...tourists feel the need to visit mass tourism destinations, such as all-inclusive resorts in the Caribbean, there are others who seek an experience that will change them forever. They want to soak up pieces of other cultures to put in their experiential scrapbook, feeling the emotions and living a lifestyle of the Other by diminishing personal boundaries. In contrast places like Brazil, Thailand, the Philippines and the Caribbean Islands are living a different reality as sexualized images of their women, and sometimes children, have become a problem by creating an unhealthy sex tourism market (Bandyopadhyay 940). With the mergence of alternative tourism and increasing global awareness about the many human rights issues stemming from generations of colonial exploitation there is hope that people will be more inclined to choose safer more sustainable modes of tourism.

Essay --

Light vs Dark love: Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby Throughout The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, relationships developed and the inevitable happened. Daisy Buchanan and Jay Gatsby rekindled their love, or so it seemed. Daisy Buchanan has an unmistakable elusive quality about herself. Fitzgerald correlates Daisy with the sun because of this quality. Fitzgerald also correlates Gatsby with darkness. Darkness can not survive where there is light, therefore Daisy’s and Gatsby’s love can not survive. Within the first three chapters of the novel Fitzgerald prepares the reader for the rest of the book by foreshadowing. One of the most memorable foreshadows in the beginning was when Daisy snapped out the candle after hearing Gatsby’s name mentioned by Miss Baker. This is an important part in the book because â€Å"Fitzgerald associates Daisy’s affections for Gatsby with sunlight.† (Sutton) The snapping out of the light foreshadows that Daisy’s affections for Gatsby have disappeared just as the light from the candle has. Due to the fact that Gatsby is correlated with darkness, he attempts to attract Daisy through a dazzling display of artificial light. When he throws his huge extravagant parties, his attempts show. Nick explains one of Gatsby’s parties by saying there were â€Å"enough colored lights to make a Christmas tree of Gatsby’s enormous garden.† (Fitzgerald 40) But, â€Å"No matter how brightly his lights shine, he can not halt the passage of time as embodied in the changing of seasons.† (Sutton) By the changing of seasons, from autumn to fall, mostly all light will cease to exist, so will Daisy’s love for Gatsby. Another attempt Gatsby tries to attract Daisy’s attention is in chapter five. The lights coming from Gatsby’s house were ... ...ut the light.† (Fitzgerald 147) That was a very important part in the plot due to the fact that her love for Gatsby is symbolized by light. Once she turned off the light, it made it clear that she no longer has feelings for him. Nor will she ever. Even more proof to show that they were not in love is when Tom goes to kill Gatsby. He succeeded. Nobody ever found out that Tom killed Gatsby. Daisy and Tom continued to live their life. Fitzgerald never stated if Daisy struggled with the fact that she practically killed two people. Only can assume that she did not even care. Overall, Daisy’s and Gatsby’s love was doomed from the start. Fitzgerald associates Daisy’s love for Gatsby with sunlight. From the start, Daisy had been putting out that sunlight. Fitzgerald also made it clear that their love would not survive when he choose to place the novel’s setting in autumn.

The Purpose Of Education :: Economics

The Purpose Of Education Education is an important part in every child's life, and here in Singapore, every child has to receive compulsory education. I believe that education is an important part in helping a child grow up, to make sure that a child grows up into a sensible and responsible adult. It is also important to make sure the child grows up into an independent person with the skills necessary to be in the workforce of a country. In order to achieve that, I feel that education has to be introduced at a young age. That way, children would be used to the environment, and be able to study more effectively when the child gets older, and more subjects are introduced. However, education cannot be too geared towards an academic approach. For example, I feel that the education system in Singapore is too exam-oriented. Though in Raffles Institution, there is no more focus on examinations, there still common tests and quizzes. Furthermore, other schools, specifically neighbourhood schools, still focus on examinations, which I think is a dangerous pitfall, since schools should not exist solely to make another person more knowledgeable. It should instead be used to help make the children's minds more creative, and not so rigid, in the sense that they would be able to look at things at different perspectives. This is clearly represented in "Gryphon". Mr. Hibler, a normal teacher in Five Oaks, follows the education system very faithfully. Paragraph 55 shows that Mr. Hibler had a lesson plan ready. Thus he was probably just going to tell the students some information about Egyptians. I feel that this kind of teaching, however, is not useful, since it just spoonfeeds the children with information. This information would be forgotten by the students very quickly after a few years. Next, we read on about how Ms. Ferenczi teaches the students. Mr. Hibler falls ill and is replaced by Miss Ferenczi. Miss Ferenczi, on the other hand, does not strictly follow Mr. Hibler's lesson plans, but instead she gives the students a lot of room for imagination. For example, in paragraph 64, Miss Ferenczi is supposed to talk about pyramids. However she asks the students to think of what was inside. Then she goes on to say that the nature of pyramids were to guide cosmic energy forces into a concentrated point. However, we know that this is not true. Thus she is apparently trying to encourage the children to imagine different things. This would be what I think the purpose of education should be. It should be to give children a chance to express their creativity, to

The Public Private Education System Education Essay

The boundaries between the public and private proviso of schooling in Cambodia have become progressively blurred. While the figure of private schools remains fringy and by and large limited to elite schools in urban countries, denationalization is come ining public schools-invisibly and frequently unofficially-on an unprecedented graduated table. Given policy force per unit areas from international fiscal establishments, the boundaries between the populace and the private are sometimes purposefully erased by authorities functionaries in the name of cosmopolitan primary instruction and Education for All ( EFA ) in order to impart private financess into a badly underfunded public instruction system. In this context, the private proviso of instruction non merely becomes attractive to policymakers as a feasible mechanism in shuting the support spread but besides reflects authorities ‘s committedness to deregulating, decentalisation, and marketisation of the economic system since th e 1990s. In add-on to government-led attempts, concealed denationalization of instruction besides thrives at the grass-root degrees in the signifier of private tutoring, which allows instructors to supplement their meagre wages with extra income and offers pupils instruction of higher quality compared to public schools. Notwithstanding the positive facets of private tutoring-such as spread outing cognition and involvements for persons ( Bray, 2007 ) , roll uping human capital for societies ( Psacharopoulos & A ; Patrinos, 2002 ) , and supplying new schemes for get bying with rapid geopolitical passages for a assortment of instruction stakeholders ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) -the private tutoring in Cambodia has grown in size to such an extent that it is now arguably greater in demand, value, and income coevals than the public instruction system. In kernel, private tutoring has become more of import to both instructors and pupils in Cambodia than the public instruction system because of its ability to bring forth higher incomes for instructors and supply a more complete ( and individualized ) instruction to pupils. The private proviso of instruction through private tutoring has assumed similar signifiers to public instruction, going both a differentiated demand ( focused chiefly on to pics examined on national trials or thought to supply better occupation chances ) and extra demand ( run intoing the unequal supply of public instruction ) . It has, in consequence, usurped the legitimacy of public instruction in Cambodia. Although the Kampuchean authorities made efforts to get rid of enrollment fees in the 1990s, prohibit informal fees like buying scrutiny documents from instructors in 2005, and label private tutoring unethical in 2008 ( see Asian Development Bank, 2008 ; Royal Government of Cambodia, 2008 ) , it has non enforced such policies. Left unregulated, the market for private tutoring has begun to falsify the mainstream course of study by switching important parts of curricular content from the populace to the private proviso of instruction. For illustration, some surveies report public school instructors â€Å" blackjacking † their ain pupils into go toing excess lessons ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Other surveies have shown a important sum of new curricular stuff or prep being presented in private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . Since many instructors live in poorness because of limited or stretched income ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 62 ) , keep backing informat ion during mainstream instruction becomes one manner to guarantee a market for private tutoring. Yet, the costs associated with private tutoring prohibit many pupils from go toing these auxiliary lessons, therefore lending to socioeconomic unfairnesss ( Bray, 1999a, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Constructing on old research about the range and nature of private tutoring in Cambodia ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) , this survey aims to straight address quality and equity deductions of private tutoring in the broader context of denationalization of public instruction. The chief research inquiry examines why, how, and under what fortunes denationalization of public instruction takes the signifier of private tutoring and what deductions this concealed denationalization has for the quality and equity of instruction proviso for Kampuchean young person. Following an overview of old research on private tutoring in the Southeast Asian and international context, we situate the survey of private tutoring in the political, economic, and historical context of Cambodia. Pulling on qualitative and quantitative informations collected in 2011 in one territory in Cambodia ( including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location ) , this survey identifies factors driv ing the demand for private tutoring, compares teaching methods used in public school categories and private tutoring lessons, and examines deductions of private tutoring for long-run societal and economic equity among Kampuchean young person.Gestating Private Tutoring:The Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemSystems of private tutoring are turning worldwide. In Europe, most European Union states experience some degree of private tutoring ( Bray, 2011 ) ; in the United States, private tutoring is estimated to be a US $ 5 billion industry ;[ 1 ]and in Hong Kong, private tutoring has become so popular that images of celebrated coachs are on a regular basis found in newspaper and coach advertizements ( Kwo & A ; Bray, 2011 ) . There is even a Chinese private tutoring company listed on the New York Stock Exchange.[ 2 ]However, private tutoring is non limited to Western and economically developed states. It has besides been found in states every bit diverse as Egypt ( Fergany, 1994 ) , I ndia ( Aggarwal, 1998 ) , and Kenya ( Nzomo et al. , 2001 ) . Asia is possibly the continent where private tutoring is most widespread ( Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) , with the more economically advanced states, like South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong, being used as the empirical footing for what some have called â€Å" hyper-education † ( Dierkes, 2010 ) .[ 3 ] Despite the range of private tutoring worldwide and its peculiar prevalence in Asia, it however takes different signifiers depending on context. Bray ( 2009 ) conceptualizes private tutoring as an institutionalised fee-based auxiliary instruction that occurs because of a scope of issues including high bets proving, remedial categories, structural issues like overloaded course of study, and/or intensive societal competition. The common metaphor for private tutoring is â€Å" shadow instruction. † Yet, in our position, in Cambodia the shadow instruction metaphor misses the hybridisation between public and private schooling. Following the treatment of the larger literature on â€Å" shadow instruction † in the subdivisions below, we elaborate the conceptualisation of the intercrossed system of instruction found in Cambodia, concentrating on its divergent and convergent points with the â€Å" shadow † metaphor.The â€Å" shadow † metaphorPrivate tutoring is no rmally referred to as â€Å" shadow instruction † because it mimics ( or â€Å" shadows † ) mainstream schooling ( Stevenson & A ; Baker, 1992 ; Bray, 1999b ; Lee et al. , 2009 ) . The survey of private tutoring within this conceptualization is concerned with topics taught on the national course of study, non extracurricular activities, like guitar lessons or dance. The analogy to a sundial casting a shadow to state the transition of clip is frequently used to depict shadows cast by systems of instruction that tell about the alterations in society ( Bray, 2007, 2011 ; Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) . In peculiar, Bray ( 2009 ) explains that the metaphor of the â€Å" shadow † is utile for several grounds: First, private supplementary tutoring merely exists because the mainstream instruction system exists ; 2nd, as the size and form of the mainstream system alteration, so make the size and form of auxiliary tutoring ; 3rd, in about all societies much more attending focuses on the mainstream than on its shadow ; and 4th, the characteristics of the shadow system are much less distinguishable than those of the mainstream system. ( p. 13 ) The shadow instruction metaphor clearly separates mainstream schooling from private tutoring, and focal points on how the two influence, and are influenced by, one another. Evidence of private tutoring around the universe suggests that there are multiple factors driving the demand for shadow instruction. First, the prevalence of high-stake scrutinies has created a demand for private tutoring among pupils to better prepare for and successfully pass assorted scrutinies necessary to progress to higher degrees of schooling. Second, private tutoring occurs when pupils need excess aid in get the hanging a certain accomplishment or subject that has proven excessively hard to understand during mainstream schooling. Third, there are assorted structural issues that cause private tutoring, such as short school yearss and low instructor wages. Impacting all three of these factors is the increased social force per unit area put on parents and pupils to win in school. Acting as a non-academic fact or taking to private tutoring, equal force per unit area besides exacerbates the demand for excess categories, as parents and pupils perceive private tutoring as an effectual manner to gain an advantage in school, sometimes despite any existent additions in academic accomplishment. High-stakes scrutinies Within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor, private tutoring is often associated with an â€Å" enrichment scheme, † foregrounding its function in fixing pupils for high-stakes scrutinies ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 61 ) . In peculiar, high-stakes scrutinies increase pupil and parental anxiousnesss about keeping, registration, or graduation. The premise is that high-stakes scrutinies serve as â€Å" a gate-keeper to instruction and labour market chances † ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 62 ) and that pupil success on high-stakes scrutinies would take to better instruction and employment chances in the hereafter. This is why â€Å" cram schools † have emerged in many states to fix pupils of assorted academic abilities ( from remedial to high winners ) for high-stakes scrutinies. For illustration, Tansel and Bircan ( 2006 ) study that extremely competitory higher instruction entryway scrutinies in Turkey create the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the second ary school choice procedure in Japan reportedly produces a strong logic for pupils to go to juku, an establishment offering a assortment of private tutoring lessons across all educational degrees ( Sawada & A ; Kobayashi, 1986 ; Russell, 2002 ; Roesgaard, 2006 ; Dierkes, 2008 ; Dawson, 2010 ) . Some surveies, nevertheless, have questioned the nexus between high-stakes scrutinies and private tutoring. For illustration, Aurini and Davis ( 2004 ) observed that tutoring concerns are turning well in Canada despite the fact that Canadian universities lack university entryway scrutinies and are non arrayed on a steep prestigiousness hierarchy, as are universities in other states such as the United States and Japan. Although Cambodia has what look to be â€Å" high-stakes † scrutinies in class 9 and grade 12,[ 4 ]the commoditisation of instruction that has resulted from the neoliberal structural accommodation policies in the 1990s has practically eliminated the high-stakes nature of these scrutinies. This has occurred because multiple goods and services are sold during the full scrutiny procedure, go forthing the demand to really analyze or â€Å" cram † for the scrutiny to lone pupils who can non afford the assorted fees or pupils who are ethically opposed to educational corruptness. First, scrutiny replies or mention ushers ( â€Å" cheat-sheets † ) can be purchased from local photocopy shops yearss or hours before the scrutiny. The assorted reply or darnel sheets cost different monetary values depending on their â€Å" known † quality ( i.e. , whether the beginning of the reply or mention sheet is known to come from a instructor, a certain location, an decision mak er, or others ) . Why would pupils â€Å" cram † for scrutinies when they can easy buy replies before the trial? Second, during the scrutiny, many services can be purchased from the two monitors ( instructors administrating the scrutiny ) in each schoolroom or accountants ( the instructor supervising a group of monitors ) standing outside. Students can pay monitors to allow them utilize either mini-textbooks purchased at a photocopy Centre, answer sheets, or work in groups. Additionally, for a higher monetary value, some monitors or accountants are willing to assist pupils by either filling in a clean scrutiny sheet and go throughing it along to pupils, or supplying one-on-one aid during the scrutiny. Sometimes during the procedure, pupils pay monitors, monitors pay accountants, and accountants pay supervisors ( instructors in charge of a group of accountants ) -all to maintain eyes looking elsewhere.[ 5 ]In some instances, parents pay a fee to guarantee a certain monitor or accountant is assigned to their kid ‘s category in order for that pupil to have aid on the more hard topics ( typically mathematics or chemical science ) from a instructor who teaches those topics. The jobs of rip offing on national scrutinies have repeatedly made headlines in the Kampuchean intelligence, but the assorted patterns are widely known to go on despite official warnings ( see Cheng, 2011 ; Chhron, 2010 ; Saoyuth, 2010 ) . As the gloss of any instruction meritocratic order is all but eliminated by the many fees during the scrutiny procedure, these trials are â€Å" high-stakes † in name merely ; few if any pupils feel force per unit area from the scrutiny beyond non holding adequate money to guarantee a high grade. In fact, pupils unable to pay the high costs typically drop out far before the national scrutinies.[ 6 ] Remedial tutoring Private tutoring is frequently thought of as assisting some pupils maintain up with the content taught in authorities school. For illustration, de Silva ( 1994 ) identified several factors that create the demand for remedial tutoring: â€Å" pupil and instructor absence, frequent closing of school, uneffective instruction and carelessness on the portion of the instructor, † every bit good as â€Å" immature, inexperienced or unqualified instructors managing these topics may non be able to take the pupils to a proper apprehension of the subdivisions taught † ( p. 5 ) . In these fortunes, remedial private tutoring serves to â€Å" get the better of these spreads or lacks in pupils ‘ acquisition and construct their assurance enabling them to vie with others and see a happy and pleasant life † ( p. 5 ) . In add-on to demand for remedial private tutoring by pupils and parents, some authoritiess have besides mandated or encouraged the usage of it. The educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for illustration, provides compulsory auxiliary categories for remedial pupils. Traditionally, if more than 50 per centum of the pupils in a category are holding jobs get the hanging the capable affair, the instructor is obliged to form alleged â€Å" remedial categories † in that topic. Remedial categories are held after regular school hours and are an chance for the instructor to make extra work with fighting pupils ( Husremovic & A ; Trbic, 2006 ) . Vouchers are another manner authoritiess can promote the usage of remedial private tutoring. In Australia, the authorities uses verifiers to fund pupils who fall behind to take remedial private tutoring categories ( Bishop, 2007 ) . Remedial private tutoring is besides available in Cambodia, but it is merely one of the many types of private tutoring ( see Table 1 ) . Students who need excess aid with assorted school topics can buy extra educational services to make full spreads in their cognition. However, this is non the chief ground for go toing private tutoring lessons. By and large, Kampuchean pupils attend private tutoring lessons conducted by their instructors as a continuance of their regular school twenty-four hours, non needfully for redress intents ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . If pupils need remedial tutoring, they would hold to take these lessons in add-on to â€Å" regular † private tutoring ( Rien Kuo[ 7 ]) . Remedial private tutoring is frequently referred to as â€Å" excess particular private tutoring † ( Rien Kuo Pises ) and is offered by instructors to pupils in one-on-one or little group lessons. Typically, these remedial categories cost more than Rien Kuo ( regular private tut oring ) , sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 monthly for one hr of analyzing one topic. However, the separation of these two types of private tutoring is non ever along remedial lines. Some pupils attend Rien Kuo when they need excess aid on a certain lesson, and some pupils attend Rien Kuo Pises because it offers a better acquisition environment than Rien Kuo. Structural issues The demand for private tutoring besides stems from structural issues, such as an overladen course of study, deficiency of fiscal resources, or educational corruptness. First, overloaded course of study is frequently attributed to the turning demand for private tutoring, proposing that public school instructors may prosecute in private tutoring after school to learn the stuff they were unable to cover during school hours. For illustration, course of study reforms implemented in many of the post-Soviet democracies in the 1990s â€Å" stretched the bing course of study † by presenting new academic topics ( e.g. , information and communicating engineerings, civics, and foreign linguistic communications ) without well altering the familial Soviet course of study. In Lithuania, Budiene and Zabulounis ( 2006: 213 ) study that the freshly introduced student-centred instruction methods consumed more clip than the old teacher-centred attacks. Private tutoring was therefore used to run i nto the demand for more clip necessary to finish the needed national course of study, utilizing new teaching/learning methodological analysiss. The association between an overladen course of study and private tutoring is besides reported in surveies of private tutoring in Cyprus, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nigeria, and Russia, ( Bray, 2007: 37 ) , every bit good as Southeast/Central Europe and Central Asia ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova et al. , 2006 ) . In Cambodia, pupils and parents perceive private tutoring as a mechanism enabling instructors to decently learn the topics included in the national course of study ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In peculiar, many parents believe that there is merely non adequate clip in the school twenty-four hours to cover all course of study, doing specific mentions to the decrease of the school twenty-four hours following the debut of double- and triple-shift schooling. Despite the few reported instances of instructors purposefully â€Å" decelerating down â €  content bringing to make a market for private tutoring ( Bray, 1999a: 55 ) , the sensed deficiency of clip nonetheless leads to a perceived demand for more instructional clip merely to supply needed coverage of the national course of study. Second, low educational outgos contribute to the demand for private tutoring. In states financially unable to adequately back up public instruction, private tutoring emerges as a mechanism to supplement low instructor wages, provide smaller category sizes, and offer larning stuffs to pupils outside the national course of study ( Silova, et al. , 2006 ; Silova, 2009 ; Bray, 2010 ; for the Kampuchean instance see Bray & A ; Bunly, 2005 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) . For illustration, Cambodia spends 2.3 per centum of GDP on instruction, puting it among the lowest in the Southeast Asia part and below the universe ‘s norm of 4.8 per centum ( European Commission, 2012 ) . Although the budget allotment to the MoEYS recurrent outgos experienced an addition starting in the 2000s, there has been a steady lessening since 2007 ( see Figure 1 ) . Harmonizing to the European Commission ( 2012 ) , there was a downward tendency in budgeted recurrent outgos between 2007 ( 19.2 per centum ) and 2012 ( 15.9 per centum ) .[ 8 ]Meanwhile, surveies have found that families contribute a larger portion on the instruction per kid than does the authorities: whereas the authorities spends on mean US $ 50 per kid per twelvemonth ( Ratcliff, 2009: 11 ) , households spend between US $ 48 ( rural countries ) to US $ 157 ( urban countries ) per kid per twelvemonth ( NEP, 2007: 18 ) . Of family instruction outgos, about 38 per centum goes to education fees, which includes the cost of private tutoring ( NEP, 2007 ) .Figure 1. MoEYS Budgeted and Actual Recurrent OutgosBeginning: Education Sector Working Group, 2006 ; European Commission, 2012 Third, the deficiency of educational resources disproportionately impact teacher rewards. In Cambodia, there has been a wide consensus among pedagogues, brotherhood leaders, decision makers, and society in general that instructor wages are deficient to cover life disbursals ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) . In 2007, for illustration, a primary instructor ‘s base wage was US $ 44 per month, which made it hard ( if non impossible ) for many instructors to afford the basic necessities of nutrient, lodging, and heath attention, every bit good as support any kids or aged household members ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 59 ) .[ 5 ]To some extent, private tutoring has helped underpaid instructors generate extra income. For illustration, a common 2nd business among Kampuchean instructors, particularly in urban primary schools, is private tutoring ( 41.5 per centum of urban instructors identified tutoring as out-of-school work ; [ Benveniste et al. , 2008: 69 ] ) . Net incomes from private tu toring can stand for about two tierces of the monthly mean base wage with basic allowances ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 38 ) . Similar to instructors in other geographic countries ( such as the Southeast/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union ) , many Kampuchean instructors have adopted the logic of â€Å" service proviso, † utilizing private tutoring as a cardinal income-generation activity ( Silova & A ; Bray, 2006 ) . Fourth, there is hold in the allotment of financess. In Cambodia, both teacher wages and Programme-Based Budgeting ( unallocated money intended for single schools, which used to be called the Priority Action Programme, or PAP ) are routinely distributed tardily. Teachers have claimed that the distribution of rewards is typically delayed ( VSO, 2008 ) . For illustration, salary expense in January 2012 had non been allocated to instructors in seven states by the terminal of the month ( Denn Ayuthyea, 2012 ) . Anecdotal narratives sing the Programme-Based Budgeting indicate that the money is frequently disbursed yearss before the District or Provincial Offices of Education require a study detailing how the money was spent. This typically leads to distort studies detailing where money was â€Å" exhausted † merely to run into the demands of the MoEYS. A 2nd issue with delayed financess is the escape that occurs between the Ministry of Economy and Finance ( the ministry responsible for let go ofing money to the MoEYS ) and when it reaches instructors. As money is passed from the Economy and Finance Ministry to the MoEYS, which is so sent to the Provincial and District Offices of Education and so eventually received by the schools, money is lost ( or â€Å" cut † in Khmer ) at each phase. One common ailment from instructors is that their wages are ne'er the right sum. Combined, low wages-made even lower by leakage-require instructors to keep 2nd occupations, which about 70 percent claim to hold ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 68 ) . Finally, structural issues that lead to private tutoring by authorities instructors may ensue in what many perceivers consider educational corruptness ( Chapman, 2002 ) . Educational corruptness has been defined as any pattern where a instructor uses his or her monopoly of power ( delegating classs, allowing admittance, etc. ) over his or her pupils in a system with small answerability ( Bray, 2003 ) . Contributions given to instructors by pupils, for illustration, have been labelled as a â€Å" baneful pattern † ( Hallack & A ; Poisson, 2008: 253 ) because some instructors may honor pupils who donate and punish those who do non. The pattern of instructors keeping private tutoring lessons for their ain pupils, nevertheless, is more hard to clearly label educational corruptness. For illustration, Johnson ( 2011 ) has provided grounds that Kyrgyzstani â€Å" pupils blame the context, non the perpetrators [ i.e. , instructors ] † ( p. 254 ) of corruptness, because â€Å" workers perceived to be lending to the grater good of societyaˆÂ ¦ [ are allowed to ] pervert from the jurisprudence † ( p. 253 ) . Furthermore, Dawson ( 2009: 71 ) â€Å" problematize [ vitamin D ] the word picture of the pattern as ‘corruption ‘ † in Cambodia â€Å" with consideration toward the grossly unequal income of province instructors and the jobs built-in with curriculum clip, content, and instructor teaching methods in the system † by locating the pattern of private tutoring within the â€Å" broad social issues. † To sum up, the â€Å" shadow instruction † metaphor assumes that private tutoring can react to the single pupil demands ( e.g. , maintaining up with the needed school course of study or bettering academic public presentation on trials ) and even systemic educational jobs ( e.g. , overloaded course of study or low instructor wages ) with the aid of the â€Å" shadow instruction † market. For under-achieving pupils, private tutoring may offer an chance for remedial instruction after school hours. For competitively minded pupils, private tutoring may help with more intensive readying for high-stakes scrutinies. For underpaid instructors, private tutoring may supply chances for auxiliary income. And, in the context of an overladen course of study, private tutoring may supply a infinite for pedagogues to learn the stuff that was non covered at school. On the surface, most of the factors normally associated with the turning demand for private tutoring are present in the Kampu chean context. However, they do non explicate the complicated agreements between the public educational system and private tutoring that emerged in the 1990s ( see Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ; Brehm, forthcoming A ) . As we suggest in this survey, private tutoring is non a shadow that is separate from mainstream schooling. As the Kampuchean instance illustrates, it may be best understood as a cardinal component in a intercrossed agreement between public schooling and private tutoring, which operates as one individual system and casts its ain shadow.The â€Å" intercrossed † metaphorThe metaphor of a â€Å" shadow † system of instruction reaches its conceptual bounds in the context of Cambodia. During our research, we have found that the term caused more confusion than lucidity among Kampuchean faculty members, instructors, pupils, parents, and policymakers. The ground being that the term â€Å" shadow instruction † suggests fee-based private tutoring is separate f rom, although influenced by, mainstream ( authorities ) school: no affair how a shadow is distorted by the form or size of its object, it will ne'er be the object projecting the shadow. The premise is that the shadow and object are basically separate. In Cambodia, nevertheless, it is normally understood that a kid ‘s instruction requires both authorities and private tutoring categories. Both are inseparable parts of one system necessary to have a complete instruction. As the mainstream schooling progressively relies on private tutoring to complement what is defined as â€Å" instruction, † the shadow and object of schooling have become one. Students typically attend one displacement ( 4 or 5 hours ) of authorities school and so go to another displacement of private tutoring categories ( 1-4 hours, depending on pupil ) each twenty-four hours, sometimes including Sundays, public vacations, and summer holiday. Students who can afford the 300-1000 Riel ( US $ 0.08-0.25 ) hourly fee for private tutoring return to school ( or teacher ‘s place ) to hold their authorities school teacher offer lessons in what appears to be the same system of instruction. In both private tutoring and authorities school categories, further more, everything is for sale, therefore film overing the lines between what is â€Å" public † ( and free ) and â€Å" private ( and for sale ) . This intercrossed system does non wipe out some of the characteristics found in â€Å" shadow † instruction worldwide. Rather, the intercrossed system of instruction that includes both authorities and private tutoring categories has cast a shadow of its ain: some pupils will go to both authorities school and private tutoring categories with their authorities school teacher and schoolmates, and so buy extra remedial or elected private tutoring in one-on-one or group settings-what is called excess particular private tutoring-at a higher cost. There are even companies offering scrutiny readying classs to pupils in the capital, Phnom Penh. Thus, the boundaries between the typical construct of â€Å" shadow † instruction and the mainstream system of instruction, which is being privatized by private tutoring, are progressively blurred in the Kampuchean context.Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemIn the Kampuchean context, private tutoring is best understood in footings of a public-private intercrossed instruction system where public schooling and private tutoring seamlessly merge, projecting its ain shadow. This conceptualisation implies that private tutoring is a compulsory ( private ) part of public instruction, non a deformed shadow, and therefore complements mainstream schooling where it is structurally lacking. Unlike the metaphor of a â€Å" shadow, † the construct of a public-private intercrossed system suggests that public schooling and private tutoring constitute two parts of one system. This conceptualisation moves off from auxiliary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are excess to the national course of study ) and towards complementary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are indispensable to the national course of study ) . A public-private intercrossed system of instruction implies that pupils are required to go to and pay for both public schooling and private tutoring to successfully finish the full national course of study. The map of complementary private tutoring therefore extends far beyond â€Å" shadowing † the mainstream system through remedial and/or enrichment instruction chances ( although these signifiers of auxiliary private tutoring continue to be in Cambodia ) . In the Kampuchean context, the chief signifier of complementary private tutoring-w hat is called Rien Kuo-assumes the maps of the mainstream instruction system itself by functioning as an of import mechanism necessary to finish the needed national course of study and increase teacher salaries-both structural failures that have complicated histories through Gallic colonialism, race murder, Soviet support, and broad internationalism/neoliberalism. As an built-in portion of the public-private intercrossed instruction system, private tutoring assumes the same schoolroom features and teaching method as mainstream schooling. Not merely does private tutoring occur inside authorities school edifices ( and frequently in the same schoolrooms where pupils receive official authorities school direction ) and is offered by public school instructors ( normally by the same instructors pupils have during regular school hours ) , but besides each category operates and maps in surprisingly similar ways. In peculiar, the usage of learning AIDSs, group work, interchanging pupil work, blending high and low ability pupils together, and even homework assignments happen in more or less the same mode in authorities school as private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In other words, it operates as a seamless system, which merely maps efficaciously when the two parts-public schooling and private tutoring-are offered in tandem. Furtherm ore, the public-private intercrossed instruction system does non halt operation when school is officially closed. Alternatively, instruction continues in the signifier of Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances ) or excess survey during vacations ( holiday ) , when kids attend private tutoring lessons during public vacations and summer interruptions to either complete the old twelvemonth ‘s course of study or acquire a head start on the approaching twelvemonth ‘s course of study. In a manner, private tutoring seems to hold been consistently integrated in mainstream schooling, organizing an institutionalised public-private intercrossed educational agreement.Table 1. Different Types of Private Tutoring in CambodiaPublic-Private Hybrid Education SystemRien KuoExtra surveySome instructors conduct private tutoring lessons to their ain pupils after school hours either in school edifices or in their place. The focal point is on covering needed school course of study, which is non ta ught during school hours. This is the most common signifier of tutoring and the focal point of this survey. It is besides referred to as Rean Boban Porn ( auxiliary survey ) or Rean Chhnuol ( survey for hire ) . Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances )Extra survey during vacations ( holiday )When pupils finish school in July or August, they frequently have the pick of go toing private tutoring lessons during the summer interruption. These categories are either conducted by their pervious class ‘s instructor to complete the course of study from that class or by the following class ‘s instructor to get down the course of study before the following school twelvemonth. This gives instructors plenty time-either at the beginning or terminal of the year-to complete the national course of study.Shadow EducationRien Kuo PisesExtra particular surveyGovernment school teachers conduct private tutoring lessons one-on-one or for little groups of pupils, typically from the instructors ‘ authorities category. These lessons are conducted after school hours either at the instructor ‘s place or a pupil ‘s place. This type of private tutoring is more expensive than the former, sometime s bing every bit much as $ 100 per month for one-on-one tutoring. This type of private tutoring is either used by pupils for remedial lessons ( i.e. , shadow instruction ) or for replacing authorities school wholly. Indeed, we found one instance during our informations aggregation where a pupil came into understanding with his instructor to go to one-on-one Rien Kuo Pises and was non required to go to authorities school on a regular basis because his instructor would tag him present. This type of Rien Kuo Pises resembles private schooling more closely than shadow or intercrossed instruction. Sala AkchoanPrivate ( tutoring ) schoolThere are many types of private schools in Cambodia. From English linguistic communication based schools to private universities to engineering developing centres-all of these schools are considered Sala Akchoan ( private survey ) . However, there is one type of private survey within this class that is portion of the shadow instruction system. In Phnom Penh ( and possibly other urban countries ) , there are a few trial readying centres that fill schoolrooms each dark as pupils â€Å" cram † for the national scrutinies and university entryway scrutinies. The most celebrated is named Chey Thavy, which was started by a chemical science professor from the Royal University of Phnom Penh. For the class 12 scrutinies, many pupils start fixing in grade 10 or 11. Preparation for the university scrutinies typically takes topographic point during the four months between the class 12 scrutinies ( July/August ) and when the university scrutinies are a dministered. Rien Kuo Anglais/BarangEnglish/French supernumerary surveyGet downing in lower secondary school, the national course of study requires pupils to take foreign linguistic communication, either English ( Anglais ) or Gallic ( Barang ) . Despite that these linguistic communications are on the course of study, some pupils purchase excess categories outside of authorities school in countless private educational centres/schools/homes. This intercrossed system of instruction has besides cast its ain shadow, reflecting the typical maps of private tutoring found within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor ( see Table 1 ) . Similar to private tutoring in other geographic contexts, remedial and enrichment tutoring chances are available in add-on to the traditional Rien Kuo in Cambodia. In peculiar, pupils who need excess assist understanding assorted topics can buy extra educational services to increase their cognition. This type of tutoring is less common and is often referred to as Rien Kuo Pises or â€Å" excess particular private tutoring. † It is offered in the signifier of one-on-one tutoring or little group lessons for pupils who need excess aid get the hanging certain topics. These categories typically cost more than Rien Kuo, sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 per month for a day-to-day category on one school topic. In add-on, private tutoring for enrichment intents is available through private tutorin g concerns in Phnom Phen, where pupils â€Å" cram † for high-stakes scrutinies. In other words, the intercrossed system-where public schooling is integrated with private tutoring-casts a shadow that is comprised of assorted remedial and enrichment tutoring infinites. Building on the bing research of private tutoring in Cambodia, this survey examines the equity issues ensuing from a public-private intercrossed system of schooling. This research looks at the differences and similarities between private tutoring ( Rien Kuo ) and authorities school categories. Datas from this research undertaking has besides been used in other publications to analyze how private tutoring is an extension of authorities school in footings of teaching method and curricular content ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) ; the building of a post-conflict societal contract in the 1990s and its impact on the impression of public instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming A ) ; and a historical analysis of mandatory instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming B ) . A Khmer version of this study ( although non a direct interlingual rendition ) is besides available ( Tuot & A ; Brehm, 2012 ) . This study takes an in-depth expression at instruction inside authorities schools and private tutoring schoolrooms, every bit good as the deductions of private tutoring for instruction quality and equity, therefore offering a elaborate reappraisal of the informations collected for this OSI funded research undertaking ( Silova & A ; Brehm, 2011 ) .Research Design and MethodsThe research design consisted of three parts, including ( 1 ) an scrutiny of the province constructions, policies, and local patterns that allow for the being of the private proviso of instruction through private tutoring ; ( 2 ) the differences in the quality of instruction proviso between public schools and private tutoring ; and ( 3 ) the equity impacts on instruction and Kampuchean society because of any quality differences and known cost barriers to accessing private tutoring ( see Figure 2 ) . Using participatory research attacks, this survey utilized methods normally used in Participatory Rural Appraisals ( PRA ) . One of the benefits of utilizing PRA methods is that â€Å" it provides a huge range and infinite for both people every bit good as foreigners to actively take part at every phase † of the research ( Narayanasamy, 2009: 26 ) . By keeping focal point groups ( 5-7 people ) and carry oning one-on-one interviews with many instruction stakeholders ( sample described in item below ) , our informations involved the engagement of many people within both the urban and rural schools under probe. The semi-structured focal point groups provided infinite for participants to research issues of quality instruction and the function private tutoring has on educational equity. We conducted semi-structured interviews as good over the class of the twelve-month informations aggregation period to make common apprehension and trust between the research workers and respondents in hopes of bring forthing more accurate information on subjects that could be sensitive. Additionally, informal interviews helped us by â€Å" prosecuting in existent or constructed duologues in order to understand the people studied in their ain footings ( sometimes described as the insider ‘s position ) † ( England cited in Sin, 2010: 986 ) . Another benefit of utilizing the PRA method is triangulation of information. Our design incorporated non merely data triangulation ( roll uping informations from persons and the synergistic degree among groups ) but besides investigator triangulation and methodological triangulation. Some focal point groups were conducted by a squad of two research workers who so worked through their findings jointly. Furthermore, these informations points were compared with informations points obtained utilizing different methods, viz. , schoolroom observations and the analysis of academic accomplishment ( monthly classs and attending ) for pupils who were go toing private tutoring lessons and those who are non. Additionally, we built off historical analyses and updated papers analyses of authorities policies in old research to the present. The methods used in each school are described below and the instruments used to roll up the informations can be found in the appendix.Figure 2. Research Design a nd MethodsThis survey is based on informations collected between January and December 2011. The sample included six schools in one territory in Cambodia, including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location.[ 6 ]The territory is economically and geographically diverse, offering penetration into assorted countries throughout Cambodia. The sample was intentionally chosen to reflect a scope of private tutoring costs in different schools depending on their geographic ( urban or rural ) location. After roll uping preliminary informations on the cost for one session of private tutoring within all lower secondary schools ( 13 ) in the territory, we selected one lower secondary school with the highest private tutoring costs ( 1,000 Riel, or about US $ 0.25, per session ) and one with lowest ( 500 Riel, or about US $ 0.13, per session ) , which besides corresponded to urban and rural countries severally. We so worked backwards to happen two primary schools that fed into each lower secondary school. The concluding schools selected were chosen by their willingness to take part in the survey.ObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observations of private tutoring lessons ( see Table 2 ) . However, these observations did non include private tutoring lessons in rural primary schools, because no such lessons were held during the four months of informations aggregation. Observation rubrics were developed utilizing instruments from a World Bank commissioned study on Cambodia ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) that focused on learning methodological analysis, schoolroom features, and category clip usage. The inquiries within each of these classs were so compiled into an observation checklist adapted for the last twelvemonth of primary and secondary school ( classs 6 and 9 severally ) , and used for observations of teaching/learning procedures in both public school categories and pr ivate tutoring lessons.[ 7 ]Table 2. Number of Observations by Subject and GradeClassCapableNumber of ObservationsGovernment ClassPrivate TutoringEntireGrade 6 Khmer 7 2 9 Matematics 1 1 2 Grade 9 Khmer 3 2 5 Mathematicss 1 2 3 Physicss 2 3 5 Chemistry 0 4 4Entire141428Tracking pupil attending and accomplishmentDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils ( see Table 3 ) , including 162 pupils in primary school ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary school ( rate 9 ) . The pupils tracked in class 9 came from six categories[ 9 ]across four topics: mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, chemical science, and natural philosophies. Although we were able to track the same categories in the rural school across all topics, a different group of categories was tracked in each of the topics in the urban secondary school. Therefore, although 282 pupils in class 9 were tracked, the figure of alone pupils in each topic varies depending on which group of categories was tracked in the urban class 9: 171 pupils in mathematics, 208 pupils in chemical science, and 203 pupils in Khmer linguistic communication.[ 10 ]At the primary degree, one category of pupils was tracked in each school.Table 3. Trailing of Student A ttendance and Achievement ( Sample )Experience with Private TutoringLocationEntireRuralUrbanPrimary Private Tutoring 24 43 67 No Private Tutoring 67 28 95 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Primary Level 162 Lower Secondary Private Tutoring 75 118 193 No Private Tutoring 38 51 89 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Secondary Level 282Entire Number of Tracked Students444Student attending of private tutoring lessons was tracked utilizing a private tutoring attending sheet specifically designed for this survey. While most participants used the attending sheet, pupil attending in private tutoring within some urban class 9 and all rural class 6 categories was provided by either the remembrances of the instructor, the entire money collected from pupils by the instructor, or an attendance sheet. These tracking systems were discussed separately with each instructor by traveling through the attending list from school and holding the instructor identify either how much money each pupil provided for private tutoring ( a record kept by some instructors ) or by bespeaking their perceptual experiences of how frequently a pupil attended private tutoring ( either by memory or an attendance sheet designed by the instructor ) . This allowed us to place which pupils attended at least one private tutoring lesson during our inform ations aggregation period. The principal of each school provided authorities attending and monthly class sheets. Data presented here screens attendance and monthly classs for one month,[ 11 ]leting for a comparing of academic accomplishment and private tutoring attending among pupils who attend private tutoring and those who do non. The academic tonss for class 9 focused on the topics of mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, and chemical science. For class 6, we focused on a combination of mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication ( Khmer command, Khmer authorship, and Khmer reading ) . Although the sample is little, covers a short clip, and does non take into consideration external factors impacting pupil accomplishment ( parental instruction, past educational experience of the pupil, proviso of tutoring other than that provided by the instructor, etc. ) , our intent here was non to find causing between private tutoring and pupil accomplishment, but instead to foreground a disparity between pupils who go and do non travel to private tutoring as one factor that divides pupils and contributes to inequality.Focus groups and interviewsFocus groups and interviews were conducted with pupils, parents, and instructors. Participants were selected by confer withing the principal or instructor of each school o r category, who so helped set up interviews and concentrate groups with community members and pupils. Although the principal or instructor could hold purposefully selected or prepared participants, this scheme was the lone politically executable option given authorities limitations. Notwithstanding these restrictions, we did happen all participants willing to speak openly approximately private tutoring and its exclusionary characteristics. Overall, 21 focal point groups were conducted, which included a sum of 118 participants ( see Table 4 ) . Focus groups were split by stakeholder groups ( pupils, instructors, and parents ) and so by their engagement in private tutoring lessons. The end of dividing the stakeholders was to increase the comfort degree among persons in each focal point group in order to research their experiences with private tutoring. The focal point groups besides discussed perceptual experiences of the impact of tutoring on instruction quality and equity. In add-on , informal interviews were conducted with 21 participants, including instructors, pupils, parents, and principals from other schools. These informal interviews focused on the experiences of persons with private tutoring, assisting us to construe some of the findings from the observations and concentrate groups.Table 4. Number of Focus Groups ( and Participants ) in Rural and Urban AreasStakeholdersPrimaryLower SecondaryCombinedClass DegreesEntireRuralUrbanRuralUrbanRuralUrbanTeachers ( entire )6 ( 28 )Private tutoring 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 8 ) 3 ( 14 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 3 ( 12 )Students ( entire )11 ( 69 )Private tutoring 2 ( 14 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 6 ( 38 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 12 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 5 ( 31 )Parents ( sum )4 ( 23 )Private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 4 ) 2 ( 9 ) Non-private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 9 ) 2 ( 14 )Entire21 ( 118 )Note: The Numberss in parenthesis are the entire figure of participants within each class.Document analysisDocument analysis included a reappraisal of authorities policies and Torahs related to instruction support and instructor wages. In add-on, we analyzed assorted studies on instruction quality and equity in Cambodia published by non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) and international bureaus ( such as the World Bank, UNICEF, and UNESCO ) . Combined, informations gained through papers analysis, schoolroom observations, academic accomplishment and attending, every bit good as focal point groups and interviews were triangulated to ease proof of informations through cross confirmation from multiple beginnings and informations aggregation techniques. See Table 5 for an overview of the research methods.Table 5. Overview of Research MethodsObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observati ons of private tutoring lessons. In primary schools, observations were conducted in mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication categories. In lower secondary schools, observations were conducted in Khmer linguistic communication, mathematics, natural philosophies, and chemical science. The same observation process was held for private tutoring lessons conducted by each instructor. How does the instructor Teach during mainstream instruction ( learning methods and curriculum content ) ? Does the instructor favor certain pupils? Who are they? What are the learning methods and content in private tutoring? How are the two instruction manners different?Trailing of Student Attendance and AchievementDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils, including 162 pupils in primary schools ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary schools ( rate 9 ) . The end was to analyze whether ( and how ) private tutoring impacts pupils academic accomplishment in different topics. What are the differences in pupils ‘ academic accomplishment for those who do and make no go to private tutoring?Focus Groups and InterviewsFocus groups with pupils, parents, and instructors were held over the class of informations aggregation to analyze their experiences with private tutoring and their perceptual experience about the impact of private tutoring on instruction entree and quality. A sum of 21 focal point groups were conducted. In add-on, A sum of 21 informal interviews were conducted with parents, instructors, and pupils throughout the informations aggregation period. What are the chief grounds kids attend private tutoring? Which topics are most popular? How much does it be? What are the difference in learning between private tutoring and authorities school? How does private tutoring impact you, your household, and your small town?Document AnalysisGovernment policies and Torahs related to instruction, 1992-present. Focus on authorities support of instruction and instructor wages. What are the system-driven factors ( national policies and Torahs ) lending to the rise of private tutoring?The Nature, Impact, and Implications of Rien Kuo:FindingssConcentrating on the range, nature, and deductions of Rien Kuo, the findings of the survey are organized around the undermentioned three chief classs: ( 1 ) course of study differences between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling, ( 2 ) accomplishment differences among pupils go toing private tutoring and those who do non, and ( 3 ) social affects of private tutoring. Before researching each of these subjects in more deepness, it is of import to supply a few descriptive statistics on the strength and signifier of private tutoring within our sample.General features of Rien KuoOf the 282 pupils tracked in class 9, 193 pupils ( 68.4 per centum ) attended at least one private tutoring category during the clip of the informations aggregation. At the primary school degree, the range of private tutoring was lower, with 41.3 per ce ntum of all surveyed pupils ( 67 out of 162 ) go toing private tutoring. The strength of private tutoring varied by topic in class 9, with 57 per centum of surveyed pupils go toing private tutoring in mathematics, 54 per centum in Khmer linguistic communication, and 37 per centum in chemical science ( see Table 6 ) . Comparing the strength among topics, a similar per centum of pupils accompanied private tutoring lessons in Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics, but a smaller per centum of pupils accompanied chemical science lessons. One account for the difference in frequence between Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics with chemical science is the manner in which classs are calculated. Each month instructors administer their ain capable scrutinies to their categories. These scrutinies are neither standardized in footings of content nor monitored in footings of rating rubrics. The tonss across all topics are so added for each pupil and divided by the entire figure of possible points, which varies by month depending on the topics covered. Average capable and overall classs are reported monthly on pupil mark sheets, bespeaking the ranking of the pupil among his or her schoolmates. Across all degrees of schooling, the topics of Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics account for 100 points ( sometimes more[ 12 ]) while the other topics merely account for 50 points on monthly mark sheets. This means hiting higher in Khmer linguistic communication or mathematics will hold a greater positive impact on pupils overall grade each month than making good on topics like chemical science, which merely account for 50 points.[ 13 ] A farther analysis of informations by geographic location ( rural versus urban ) reveals a higher strength of private tutoring usage in urban countries compared to rural countries. In primary schools, for illustration, 60.5 per centum of urban pupils attended private tutoring categories compared to 26.4 per centum of pupils in rural countries. The one exclusion within our informations set is for Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in class 9 where more rural pupils attended private tutoring than urban pupils. This divergent determination can be explained in two ways. First, it can be partly attributed to parental pick. If parents can merely afford private tutoring in one topic, Khmer linguistic communication was perceived as most valuable because of the rating policies described above and the general perceptual experience that literacy is a necessary life accomplishment. Second, within the rural categories tracked, 19 pupils who attended private tutoring were supported ( i.e. , provided money to go to private tutoring ) by an NGO. Without fiscal support to pay the private tutoring fees, these 19 pupils would most probably non hold attended the excess classs in any topic. Controling for these pupils, we find that merely 39 per centum of pupils attend Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in the rural school compared to 52 per centum in the urban school. This is in understanding with the general determination of a higher strength of private tutoring within urban schools. There were besides noticeable differences between authorities school and private tutoring category sizes. Since Rien Kuo is seldom offered in a one-on-one scene and is alternatively taught to larger groups of pupils, it closely resembles categories in mainstream schools. Nevertheless, Rien Kuo category sizes are by and large smaller than those in mainstream schools.[ 14 ]Based on our observations and attending trailing, the mean category size of authorities school in class 9 ( both urban and rural ) was 42 pupils. By contrast, private tutoring categories were, on norm, 21 pupils. Interrupting these informations down by location, we find that the mean category size in authorities school is 56 pupils in the urban lower secondary school and 35 pupils in the rural lower secondary school. By contrast, private tutoring categories were on mean 37 pupils and 17 pupils in urban and rural schools, severally. This suggests that private tutoring categories are ( 1 ) smaller than authorities scho ol irrespective the location, and ( 2 ) urban countries have larger category sizes in both authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons compared to rural countries.Table 6. Intensity of Private Tutoring by Subject, Grade 9Students in authorities categoryStudents in private tutoring% of pupils in private tutoringMathematicssUrban 58 35 60.34 Rural 113 63 55.75 Entire 171 98 57.31ChemistryUrban 95 58 61.05 Rural 113 19 16.81 Entire 208 77 37.02Khmer LanguageUrban 90 47 52.22 Rural 113 64 56.64 Entire 203 111 54.68Course of study differencesGiven that Rien Kuo by and large takes topographic point on school evidences, normally in the same schoolrooms where authorities school categories are held, there are some interesting continuities between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling. Data collected from schoolroom observations and triangulated with interviews and concentrate groups suggest that private tutoring is in many respects a continuance of authorities school in footings of learning methodological analysis and course of study content ( see Table 7 ) . For illustration, instructors appear to delegate prep ( 43 per centum of private tutoring categories observed and 64 in authorities categories ) and even present new stuff in private tutoring lessons ( 36 per centum of the private tutoring categories and 79 per centum of authorities categories ) . Likewise, pupils appear to be involved in similar activities in both authorities categories and private tutoring lessons, including replying multip le pick inquiries ( 14 per centum ) and reacting to instructors give illustration to whole category ( 78 per centum ) .Table 7. Similarities between Government School and Private Tutoring ClasssTeacher PedagogyGovernment SchoolN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed )Private TutoringN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed ) High ability pupils work with low ability pupils 28.6 ( 4 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) High ability pupils help learn whole category 71.4 ( 10 ) 50.0 ( 7 ) Name on weak pupils to reply inquiries 50.0 ( 7 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Students answer multiple pick inquiries 14.3 ( 2 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) Students answer inquiries at board 100.0 ( 14 ) 71.4 ( 10 ) Teacher assigns prep 64.3 ( 9 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Teacher nowadayss new stuff 78.6 ( 11 ) 35.7 ( 5 ) Teacher provides whole category direction 100.0 ( 14 ) 85.7 ( 12 ) Students answer in chorus 71.4 ( 10 ) 64.3 ( 9 ) Teacher gives illustration to whole category 78.6 ( 11 ) 78.6 ( 11 ) The focal point groups with instructors provided in-depth qualitative information to congratulate the observations sing learning methodological analysis and the course of study used in authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons. The first subject that emerged in the focal point groups was the overpowering sentiment that the national course of study is excessively long to finish during authorities school hours. Some instructors said they had to â€Å" hotfoot † through the course of study to complete on clip and feared being held accountable for non completing. For illustration, one instructor who conducts private tutoring explained: We rush to maintain up with the course of study. [ During official school hours ] , we teach merely theory and give merely a few illustrations. If pupils go to private tutoring, they can pattern [ at the board ] because there are fewer pupils who goaˆÂ ¦We can non acquire all pupils to pattern [ at the board ] in authorities category. It requires a batch of clip. The â€Å" haste † to complete the course of study is a consequence of a course of study excessively â€Å" full † to finish during the allotted clip. One history instructor who sends his kids to private tutoring explained: â€Å" [ The ministry ] allows small clip [ to learn ] . I teach based on the [ allowed ] clip. If the course of study is non finished, [ so ] I allow it travel because there is non adequate clip. [ Although ] I try my best, it is still impossible [ to learn everything ] . † The bulk of instructors agreed that the course of study clip provided by the MoEYS was non sufficient for pupils to pattern the theory they learned during school hours and that they conducted private tutoring to supply more pattern clip for pupils to complement the cognition gained. In other words, private tutoring provided the necessary clip to complete the course of study to a perceived higher criterion. As one instructor who does non carry on private tutoring explained, â€Å" Private tutoring instructors take the lessons learned in the authorities category and supply more pattern in private tutoring. They even add more [ stuff excluded in the authorities category ] . † From instructors ‘ positions, quality instruction could non be achieved during regular school hours. One of the